It will often be found in Modern English, as in other languages, that some element of a sentence apparently necessary to its meaning is not actually there and its function is taken up by some other element. We will first illustrate this general statement by two examples which will at the same time show two different ways of expressing the function of an element which is not there: (1) I could not find him, though I wanted to. (2) He works more than you do. The full text of these sentences would evidently run like this: (1) I could not find him, though I wanted to find him. (2) He works more than you work. What we have to discuss is, in what way the meaning of the words find him and work respectively is suggested without their being actually used in the sentence. In the first of the two sentences, I could not find him, though I wanted to, the meaning of the missing infinitive to find with the adhering pronoun him is suggested by merely using the infinitival particle to (after wanted) which, as it were, does duty for the infinitive and the pronoun (or it might be a noun, or indeed any phrase denoting the object of the verb find). No extra word is used here, that is, no word that would not stand in the full text of the sentence as we have reconstructed it. The particle to may be said to represent the infinitive and the noun or pronoun denoting the object of the action. This way of suggesting the meaning of words not actually used may be termed "representation". In our other example, He works more than you do, things are somewhat different. If we compare the text as it stands with the full version: He works more than you work, we see that there is in our text a word that is not found in the full version, namely the verb do. It is quite obvious that the verb do in such cases may replace any verb except the auxiliaries be, have, etc., and the modal verbs can, may, etc. It should also be noted that the verb do in this function need not necessarily be in the same tense, or mood, as the verb which it replaces. This case differs from the one considered above in that a word appears which would not have been used in a full version of the sentence. This way may be termed "substitution", as distinct from representation. Having established the main facts concerning representation and substitution, we can now proceed to point out some typical phenomena of both kinds in Modern English. There are some cases of representation highly characteristic of the English language. Among these we must mention, in the first place, representation by an auxiliary verb of an analytical verb form of which it is a part. The auxiliary verbs capable of performing this function are, be, have, shall, will, should, would, e. g. "Oh,  shes fainted again." "No I havnt." (SHAW) The auxiliary always represents the analytical verb form which was last used in the sentence. This indeed appears to be the only natural and idiomatic way of expressing the ideas in question: if the speaker had used the full form, this would in every case sound strikingly awkward and inappropriate, no matter what the stylistic sphere of the text may be. Compare also: "Which of us was the better fencer?" "I was." "Of course you were." (Idem) This kind of representation is found within the limits of one sentence, as in the example already quoted: She didn't count with Stella, never had, and never would (WOODHILL) and also in short answers in dialogue, as in the following extracts: "I have a frightful feeling that I shall let myself be married because it is the world's will that you should have a husband." "I daresay I shall, someday." (SHAW) "Do you intend to tell him what you have been telling me to-night?" "I hadn't meant to. I had rather not." (R. MACAULAY) Auxiliary and modal verbs, and the infinitival particle to are the chief means of representation in Modern English. The other way of suggesting the meaning of a word that is not actually used in the sentence is substitution. Instead of repeating a word that has already been used in the sentence, or in the preceding one, another word is used, whose own lexical meaning is irrelevant and which serves as a means of "hinting" at the meaning of the word that is not repeated. The two main words used in this function are the verb do and the pronoun one, each in its own sphere, of course. The verb do can substitute any verb except those enumerated OB page 351, in fact it can substitute all the verbs with which it is used to form their interrogative and negative forms. For instance, it can substitute the verb appreciate, as in the sentence Nobody can appreciate it more than I do (SHAW), just as it is used in its interrogative and negative forms: Do you appreciate it? He does not appreciate it, etc. But it cannot be used to substitute, for instance, the verb must, just as it is not used to derive interrogative and negative forms of that verb. It will be readily seen that in the sphere of verbs representation and substitution complete each other: in some verbal forms (present indefinite and past indefinite) substitution by do is used, whereas in all other forms (the analytical ones) representation is the method used. Occasionally the verb do in this function can even precede the verb which it replaces. This is the case in the following sentence: As he was accustomed to doing, Harry closed the sale and had the signed contract in his pocket within fifteen minutes. (E. CALDWELL) It may even be said that the verb do here replaces the whole phrase closed... fifteen minutes. As to the other substitution word, the pronoun one, it is of course used to substitute nouns. It is important to note that its use is limited. The noun to be substituted should be in its indefinite variety, that is, it should be accompanied by the indefinite article: otherwise its substitution by the pronoun one is not possible. Compare the two following bits of dialogue: (1) "Have you found an English teacher?" "Yes, I have found one," but (2) "Have you found the English teacher?" "Yes, I have found him (or her)," not "one". Or again: "Do you know a foreign language?" "Yes, I know one" but "Do you know the English language?" "Yes, I know it." So the meaning of indefiniteness adheres to the pronoun one as it does to the indefinite article, whose doublet it actually is. However, the pronoun one differs from the indefinite article in that it has a plural form (ones), which the indefinite article of course has not. On the other hand, however, the pronoun one can also be used with reference to a definite object, and in that case it is preceded by the definite article and some limiting attribute must come either before it (i. e. between the definite article and the pronoun) or after it, in the shape of an attributive clause with or without a relative pronoun. Hence the following types of groups are possible: (1) the green one, the larger one, (2) the one which you mentioned, the one he bought, etc. or in the plural, (1) the green ones, the ones you mentioned, (2) the ones which you mentioned, the ones he bought, etc. Though the pronoun one is thus a very common substitute for a noun not repeated in the sentence, it by no means follows that the pronoun must be used wherever such repetition is avoided. Sentences are numerous enough in which the pronoun one is not used: we may say that in these cases it is the preceding attribute (which is usually, if not always, an adjective) that represents the omitted noun which is to be understood from a former part of the sentence, or from a preceding sentence. Here is a characteristic example from the beginning of a sketch by Jerome K. Jerome: "Now, which would you advise, dear? You see, with the red I shan't be able to wear my magenta hat." "Well, then, why not have the grey?" "Yes, yes, I think the grey will be more useful." "It's a good material." "Yes, and it's a pretty grey. You know what I mean, dear; not a common grey. Of course grey is always an uninteresting colour." "It's quiet." "And then again, what I feel about the red is that it is so warm-looking. Red makes you feel warm even when you're not warm. You know what I mean, dear." "Well, then, why not have the red? It suits you — red." In the whole of this extract the noun material, to which the words red and grey refer, has only been used once. It appears, too, that the adjectives red and grey tend to be substantivised, as is seen from the use of the phrases a pretty grey and a common grey. Speaking of substitution in a wider sense, we might include personal pronouns of the third person, which more often than not perform this function. But this lies beyond that specific sphere or representation and substitution which we are considering here, and besides in this use of personal pronouns English does not appear to differ in any way from other languages.